English in the British Colonies: ASEAN

English in the British Colonies: ASEAN English in the British Colonies: ASEAN The British Empire was the dominant global power, with many colonies and a lot of outposts all over the world. It has a lot of reasons why the British Empire had to colonize other countries such as industrialization, world market, political motive, rise in population, etc. To illustrate, for the industrialization, the rise of demand in England, they had the new technology like steam power and harvesting machines that increased the production more and more. In contrast, it is the cause of needed more resources in England, so to meet the rise in demand, England started to find the resources from other place. Moreover, it is also about the political motives that like a war between England and France or other European countries. They wanted to make themselves be an impressive and strong political nation, so it is like a competition that they competed each other to reign the land. During the 1500s and 1600s, international trade of Asia was controlled by the European countries as they can get many advantages from this trade to their own countries. As a consequence, the European countries became stronger; on the other hand, Asian countries and monarchy system became weaker. About 1800s, the European countries started to establish their power above the Asia, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The British colonization in Southeast Asia, British had colonized four countries in Southeast Asia that is ‘Burma’, ‘Malaysia’, ‘Singapore’, and ‘Brunei Darussalam’. So, when the British come to occupy, they also bring many things to the colonized countries such as knowledge, culture, and also language. Burma (Myanmar) The British conquered Burma is not like other colonies which keep up their ethnic identity; Burma was a province of British India. Therefore, Burmese had two set of ruler: the top is British and Indians in the middle. In 1935, the British separated Burma from India, and it was effective in two years later or in 1937. In 1948, Burma was able to arrange its dependence from Great Britain. Nowadays, Myanmar or Burma has the primary language of instruction that is Burmese; moreover, English is the second language that was taught. To illustrate, English was the first language of instruction in higher education in the past as when Gen Ne Win reformed educational system to ‘Burmanize’. English language was used by educated people and the national government. Burmese English Burmese English is similar to Indian English because of the historical ties to India during British colonization. The system of spelling in Burmese English is based on the British English; in contrast, American spellings have become popular as the first Burmese-English dictionary was created by Adoniram Judson who is an American. For example, color, check, encyclopedia. Many Standard English words were borrowed to Burmese English and may words use in a different situation. For example, ‘pavement’ (British English) or ‘sidewalk’ (American English) is usually called ‘platform’ in Burmese English. Furthermore, many words were pronounced with the British accent, such asvitamin/ˈvÉ ªtÉâ„ ¢mÉ ªn/. In Burmese pronunciation, consonants are unaspirated such as the k, p, and t because of the general rule like in Indian English. Between Burmese English and Standard English, there are some pronunciation differences. Burmese English Standard English Remarks ur(e.g.further,Burma) /à ¡/ Pronounced with a high tone (drawn-out vowel), as in Burmese ow(e.g.now,brow) /à ¡uÉ ´/ Pronounced with a nasal final instead of an open vowel ie(e.g.pie,lie) /aiÉ ´/ Pronounced with a nasal final instead of an open vowel tu(e.g.tuba,tuba) /tɆ¢u/ e.g. tuition, commonly pronounced[tɆ¢Ãƒ ¹ÃƒÅ Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¬Ãƒâ€°Ã‚ ´] sk(e.g.ski) /sÉâ„ ¢k-/ Pronounced as 2 syllables st(e.g.star) /sÉâ„ ¢t-/ Pronounced as 2 syllables pl(e.g.plug) /pÉâ„ ¢l/ Pronounced as 2 syllables v(e.g.vine) /b/ -nk(e.g.think) /à ¡Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒâ€°Ã‚ ´/ Pronounced with a short, creaky tone (short vowel) -ng(e.g.thing) /iÉ ´/ Pronounced as a nasal final consonantal finals (.e.g.stop) /-ʆ/ Pronounced as a glottal stop (as in written Burmese, where consonantal finals are pronounced as a stop) Singapore During World War II, Singapore was occupied by Japanese Empire from 1943 to 1945. Finally, Singapore reverted to British Control when the war ended. And Singapore became an independent republic on 9 August 1965 because of the separation from Malaysia. Singaporean English or Singlish Singaporean English or Singlish is the English language spoken in Singapore which was influenced by Chinese and Malay. There are two main forms that are Standard Singapore English (SSE) and Singapore Colloquial English. Standard Singapore English’s roots derived from the country’s 146 years (1819 to 1965) under British colonial rule. British colonial government used English as the official language. Moreover, in 1959 when Singapore obtained self-government and got the independence in 1965, the Singaporean government keeps English as the official language because of the economic prosperity. The use English in Singapore have many advantages; for example, decreasing the gap between the diverse ethnic group, being the first language use of the nation, or helping Singapore development and integration into the global economy. There are many difference rules between Standard English and Singlish. For example, in term of Morphology, Singlish has a lot of grammatical endings that is not necessary in Standard English and speakers have to take into conversation. Furthermore, Plurals and past tenses are not needed. For example, English Standard Singlish What happened yesterday? What happen yesterday? Where do you go? You go where? So the bicycle went first. Then bicycle go first ah. Moreover, the main difference from Standard English is the frequent repetition of words that was used to emphasis and intensity and auxiliary verbs are missing. In contrast, Standard English is not used repetition, even for intensity: the word is only said one time. For example, English Standard Singlish Don’t ask who! Don’t ask who lah! Why do you ask? Why you ask ask ask? How smart you are. How smart you. Brunei Darussalam Brunei Darussalam became a British protectorate in 1888 and in 1906 Brunei Darussalam also was assigned to be a colonial manager of British Resident in 1906. In 1952 a new constitution was written after the occupation during World War II by Japanese Empire. Moreover, in 1962 the monarchy was ended by a small armed rebellion that was help by the British. Brunei got its dependence from the United Kingdom on 1st January 1984. Brunei is a country that has many languages regional such as Malay, English, Chinese, Arabic, Nepali, etc. The official language is Standard Malay, but Brunei English is very popular and it is widely spoken as it is spoken by the most of the population. English has been an important language of education in Brunei since the inception of public education. Learning both English and Malay in Brunei tend to get squeezed out the minority language such as Tutong and Dusun. In addition, people who attend the top school of the nation usually have an excellent foundation in English; in contrast, people who attend to lower schools often have a little skill in English. Brunei English Brunei English are different from Standard English in some points such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, etc. These are some of remarkable features of Brunei English’s pronunciation. The consonant at the start word ‘th’ like ‘thin’ and ‘thank’ tends to be pronounced as [t] rather than [ÃŽ ¸]. The vowel in function words such as ‘of’ and ‘that’ tends to be a full vowel rather than [Éâ„ ¢]. One current change that seems to be taking place is that Brunei English is becoming rhotic, partly influenced by American English and partly influenced by the rhoticity of Brunei Malay. Next, there are a few examples of remarkable features of Brunei English grammar. Plural nouns are added –s suffix, even they are uncountable nouns in other varieties of English. For example, ‘equipments’, ‘infrastructures’, and ‘jewelleries’ Adding suffix ‘-s’ on verbs to indicate a 3rd person singular subject is variable. ‘would’ is often used to indicate something that is not definite. The last is about the vocabulary in Brunei English.Many words from Malay are borrowed into Brunei English. For example, the words ‘titah’ (a Sultan’s speech), ‘sabda’ (another Royal family’s speech), ‘tudong’ (a head-dress worn by women), and ‘puasa’ (‘fasting’). The words from local food usually loan from Malay, such as ‘kuih’ (a local cake), as in ‘A variety of Malay kuih and sliced fruit will also be served’. Malaysia In the 1800s, the British East India Company partly controlled India. At that time, they interested in a base in Malaya. In 1786, the British under Francis Light occupied Penang and established Georgetown and they took Province Wellesley in 1800. Malaysian English Malaysia has two types of English: Malaysian Colloquial English (MySE), and Malaysian English (MyE). Malaysian Colloquial English is known as‘Manglish’. It is aportmanteau wordof the ‘Street English’. It is common to speak with friend, but it is forbidden in school. Malaysian English (MyE) is a form of language that used and spoken as a second language in Malaysia. It originates from British English because of British rule. In addition, its vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar have composed by many languages such as American English, Malay, Chinese, Indian languages, etc. Malaysian English uses the same pronunciation system like British English; however, most of Malaysian people speak with a distinctive accent. The accent of Malaysian people get an influenced from American TV programs; moreover, many people study higher education in the United States and American companies in Malaysia that employed English speakers in cities. These are some feature of Malaysian English. Generally, Malaysian English is non-rhonic, all [r] are pronounced in Malay. Malaysian English employs a broad an accent, such as the words like ‘cab’ and ‘tab’ appear with [É‘Ë ] rather than [à ¦]. The [t] in words like ‘butter’ is usually not flapped (as in some forms of American English) or realized as a glottal stop (as in many forms of British English, including Cockney). There is no h-dropping in words like ‘head’. Malaysian English does not have English consonant-cluster reductions after [n], [t], and [d]. For example, ‘new’, ‘tune’ and ‘dune’ are pronounced [ˈnjuË ], [ˈtjuË n], and [ˈdjuË n]. Fricatives th ([ÃŽ ¸] and [à °]) are pronounced [t] for [ÃŽ ¸] and [d] for [à °]. L is generally clear. Diphthongs ow ([Éâ„ ¢ÃƒÅ Ã…  ] or [oÊÅ  ]) are just [o] and ay ([eÉ ª]) is just [e]. Comparing the words has different meaning between British English and Malaysian English. Word/ Phrase Malaysian meaning British/ American Meaning parking lot parking space parking garage (US) flat low-cost apartment apartment (US) apartment medium-cost apartment flat (UK) condominium high-cost apartment Common hold (UK) to revert to come back (reply) to someone to return to a previous state to send to take someone somewhere to cause something to go somewhere without accompanying it Moreover, Malaysian also has the words that were used only in Malaysia. It comes from a variety of influences. Sometimes, the words are also representing the influence of some continuums of Singapore Standard English. In the media, literature, and formal speech used, any words of Malay origin that have made into standard from Malaysian English. Malaysian British / American handphone (often abbreviated to HP) mobile phone or cell phone public telephone or public phone payphone Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indian Chinese Malaysian, Indian Malaysian keep in view (often abbreviated to KIV) kept on file, held for further consideration MC (medical certificate) sick note, aegrotat mee (fromHokkienwordmi) noodles bank in (cheque) deposit a cheque References History of colonialism. 2014. History of colonialism. Wikipedia.http://en/wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_colonialsm (accessed Feb 19, 2014). British Empire. n.d. British Empire. Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire#Britain.27s_imperial_century_.281815.E2.8 0.931914.29 (accessed Febr 19, 2014). British Empire. n.d. British Empire. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire (accessed Feb 19, 2014). Language of Burma.n.d. Language of Burma. Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Burma (accessed Feb 19, 2014). Burmese language.n.d. Burmese language. Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_language (accessed Feb 19, 2014). Burmese English. n.d. Burmese English. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_English (accessed Feb 19, 2014). History of Singapore. n.d. History of Singapore. Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Singapore (accessed Feb 19, 2014). Richard Nordquist. n.d. Singapore English. About.http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/SingaporeEnglishterm.htm (accessed Feb 19, 2014). Singapore English. n.d. Singapore English. Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_English (accessed Feb 19, 2014). Singlish. n.d. Singlish. Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singlish (accessed Feb 19, 2014). Brunei.n.d. Brunei. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei (accessed Feb 20, 2014). Tincan. 2005. Brunei Darussalam Overview. Minorityrights.http://www.minorityrights.org/?lid=3899 (accessed Febr 20, 2014). David Deterding. 2014. Language in Brunei. http://brunei-linguistics.blogspot.com(accessed Feb 20, 2014). Languages of Brunei. n.d. Languages of Brunei. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Brunei (accessed Feb 20, 2014). Brunei. n.d. Negara Brunei Darussalam. Nationsonline.http://www.nat ionsonline.org/oneworld/brunei.htm (accessed Feb 20, 2014). Gloria Poedjosoedarmo. 2014. English in Brunei Darussalam: Portrait of a Vital Language with an Elusive Role. RELC journal. http://rel.sagepub.com/content/35/3/359.short (accessed Feb 20, 2014). Brunei English. n.d. Brunei English. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei_English (accessed Feb 20, 2014). Tim Lambert. 2012. A BRIEF HISTORY OF MALAYSIA. Localhistory.http://www.localhistories.org/malaysia.html (accessed Feb 20, 2014). Malaysian English. n.d. Malaysian English. Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_English (accessed Feb 20, 2014).

“A Taste of Honey” Shelagh Delaney Essay

In â€Å"A Taste of Honey† Shelagh Delaney presents Jo as a young woman looking for security and love. Compare the relationships she has with Helen, her boyfriend and Geoff. To what extent does she find security and love with each? Shelagh Delaney the writer of the play â€Å"A Taste of Honey† was born on November 25th 1939 in Salford, England. It was in school when she saw her first play, an amateur performance of Shakespeare’s â€Å"Othello†. She was only twelve at the time, and the play made a great impression on her. When she was seventeen, she began writing â€Å"A Taste of Honey† as a novel but later realised that it would be better as a play so it was first performed in 1958, accepted by Joan Littlewood, a famous director of the Political Theatre who strongly believed that plays should be about ordinary people. â€Å"A Taste of Honey† is mainly about a young working class girl who refuses to conform to her dreary surroundings and way of life. When the play was introduced, it was rare to find any of the situations portrayed in any other plays as the circumstances of each of the characters in the play were polemic and unaccepted by a neglectful society. Keeping up the appearances was an important factor in life, and at the time public disgrace was a horrendous situation to be involved in., so it almost became a day to day struggle to keep others satisfied with a suitable personal image that no one had the right to question. People were often very prejudiced about things like origin and race, sexual inclination, promiscuity and sex before marriage. To be involved in any of those things was a serious act for concern from the family and members of the community. At the time people were very religious and strict with regards to homosexuality, promiscuity and sex before marriage, in households from the 20th century, there was rarely a laid back mentality when these situations happened in the conventional life of an ordinary person. It was very common for a youngster to be involved in any of the above, as the senior members relied on their traditional customs and philosophies and took a lot of care in their every move. Ironically this play doesn’t seem very concerned with all the issues that emerge from that society, and makes it a much more rebellious and interesting play to watch. However interesting it was, not everyone agreed with the content of the play, as some reviewers confessed that this was the first play they had seen with a coloured person and a homosexual man. Jo is a 15-year old girl who seems to have been unfortunate in life due to the circumstances that we see her in at the start of the play. By the way of life she leads, we learn that she is not happy or satisfied with herself or with her only relative, her mother. She displays inappropriate behaviour for a teenager of her time, â€Å"I don’t owe you a thing.† By saying this we learn that she has little respect for Helen and is very distant from her, she also sounds angry and frustrated because she knows she deserves much more and also because Helen has not been a proper mother to her in any way. Something else, which we are able to see from Jo’s lifestyle, is that she is frequently exposed by her mother, to different men coming in and out of Helen’s life. The best example is Peter, a â€Å"close† friend of Helen’s. This is evidently an unsuitable environment for a teenage girl, and clearly shows that Helen is not very concerned about the image she is creating in Jo’s mind. We can conclude that Helen is not only being a terrible example for daughter Jo, but also is offering no security in the sense of stable relationships that can benefit Jo in a good way. Helen doesn’t stand firm in front of Jo and by inviting men into her house, she is loosing all sense of respect for herself and most importantly, for her daughter. Its almost like Helen and Jo are friends who take â€Å"boyfriends† in for intimate relationships. At the start of the play we learn that Helen has a strong drinking problem, â€Å"drink, drink, drink, that’s all you’re fit for. You make me sick.† Jo is directly affected by it, as she has to co-exist with this habit in Helen’s life. We know that she clearly dislikes it and mentions how her mother isn’t good for anything else apart from drinking. This can represent the way Jo feels, since the time she started to realise her mother’s neglectful treat â€Å"you make me sick†, Jo’s frustration has become so great that she has started to hate her mother for being such a bad parent. By mentioning â€Å"that’s all you’re fit for† Jo tells us that Helen has been a total failure in every aspect of motherhood and wasn’t able to demonstrate even the smallest sign of care and affection for daughter Jo. Perhaps Helen thought that alcohol could help ease the pain of not being able to be a good parent and offer love and security to Jo. But once again we see that Helen makes the wrong choice and maybe unconsciously might not realise how much this is also affecting Jo. This drinking problem is once again an appalling example that Helen is transmitting to Jo, as she might think it’s acceptable to drink in order to ease the pain and attempt to sort out problems under a more relaxed but less rational approach. Some readers may think that at the point of Helen’s response to Jo’s comments about drinking, she is completely under the dominion of alcohol, and responds in a cynical way, â€Å"†¦Don’t just stand there shivering; have some of this if you’re so cold†. My reaction to this answer was of utter amazement as I am unable to believe the extent of Helen’s brutality and stupidity. She has just been told by Jo how much she dislikes the habit and still persists on acting irresponsibly and offering an intoxicating drink to her underage daughter. She should have been a little more considerate and thought of a more reasonable solution to Jo’s request. This once again leads us to believe that Helen is offering Jo no security, or protection in any way. Unexpectedly Jo enquires about her father just as her mother is getting ready to marry peter. As she is not pleased with what her mother responds, she declares her as a liar â€Å"You liar†¦ look at me†. This response was obviously generated from the way Helen answered Jo’s question, which evidently wasn’t tactful or sensitive. Until this point we learn that Jo is unaware of who her father is, and this sort of conversation appears to be a serious issue between mother and daughter. Jo seems to feel resentment towards her mother, by the way she says â€Å"you liar†. By hiding this important piece of information to Jo, I believe that Helen has disrespected her daughter in various aspects. Jo as being the product of an intimate relationship between Helen and the man in question is in her full right to demand respect and to know who her progenitor was. This reveals quite a lot about Helen’s personality, as she demonstrates cowardice at the single thought of facing her daughter and telling her the truth about her origin. When Jo says â€Å"look at me†, it becomes clear to us, that she has to prove or disprove her mother’s honesty with a single glance at her eyes. Jo is not entirely sure of this answer and proves to us that she does not trust her mother in her honesty and actions. Helen and Jo keep an uncharacteristic relationship; because it’s not one of mother and daughter love neither a friendly one. They just don’t seem to be able to understand each other as such and therefore have lost all mutual respect and affection, simply because Helen is far too selfish to give up her way of life to ultimately benefit her daughter and herself. It’s like they’ve swapped roles, Helen being the daughter and Jo being the mother, one more responsible and conscious than the other. Jo acts like an adult in many ways, as she shows a clear disapproval upon her surroundings and her mother’s drinking habits, she certainly feels uncomfortable at the men coming in and out of Helen’s life. â€Å"You’ve emptied more bottles down your throat in the last few weeks than I would have thought possible. If you don’t watch it, you’ll end up an old down-out boozer knocking back the meths† Jo is warning Helen that if she isn’t careful with her habits, she will be alcoholic and drinking illicit beverages â€Å"meths†. Jo sounds like she’s disturbed by her mother’s future and has a precautious tone in her voice that makes her sound like a worried mother or wife. At the start of the play, when we meet Helen and Jo, their relationship seems very weak, and doesn’t seem to get any better as the play proceeds; because of this I can predict that as they don’t dedicate sufficient time and effort to form stronger bonds they will not be able to progress and comprehend their individual needs and circumstances. â€Å"†¦Anyway, it’s your life, ruin it your own way†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Helen makes this very strong remark that suggests a very careless thought with regards to Jo’s future. She uses a common tactic that allows her to show a dignified attitude, by offering Jo sufficient freedom to ruin her future and hold her responsible for her actions, consequently saving herself from her daughter’s blame and pain of failing. This shows how careless she is at offering support in Jo’s plans ambitions and dreams. In a way this is a very sad thing to do, because not only does Jo lack financial stability, but also love and emotional security. On the other hand Jo is conscious of her mother’s intentions with regards to a good life for her. â€Å"Ruining my life. After all, you’ve had plenty of practice† this blame on Helen’s performance as mother is quite serious and is good at describing their relationship in general. This allegation is also good to prove the fact that Helen has offered no security or love to Jo. However making matters worse Helen accepts this accusation and unconsciously hurts Jo to a deeper extent saying â€Å"yes, give praise where praise is due, I always say†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pessimistically she responds with no hint of shame at what she has created in Jo, because of her neglectful behaviour. I don’t think that during the play their relationship gets to evolve in a positive or a negative way; however Helen may start to look at Jo as a woman rather than a girl due to the consequence of her relationship with â€Å"boy† and her pregnancy. In act 1 scene 2 Helen leaves her daughter Jo to go and get married to Peter, which in some way helps Jo’s emotional state, as it is supposedly the end of a most hated cohabitation, and the start of a new independent life. I believe that this action taken by Helen was by far the best thing she has done to benefit Jo, perhaps unconsciously but for the benefit of both sides. Helen has been a bad mother because she has never been able to offer Jo pure and unconditional love, instead she has made Jo’s existence imperfect and complicated without a reasonable purpose. I am not trying to justify un-motherly conduct, but she probably was never prepared to facet he responsibilities of a parent. It was completely inappropriate form Helen to allow men and alcohol form a barrier between herself and daughter Jo. Nearer to the conclusion of the play Helen returns to Jo, not to rectify her mistakes but only to make matters worse for poor Jo and her baby, I feel that she came back in a mood of pity and not love for a future single mother. However she may see herself reflected on Jo, and may feel is her duty to come to aid her. I feel great sympathy for Jo at the end of the play, because it seems to me that her life is a cycle that repeats itself over and over again. She is lonely even though she is due to have a baby and has her mother with her. Sadly Helen is still an alcoholic, and is penniless just as Jo is, which will unmistakeably make the baby suffer because of the circumstances. I also feel that since Jo and Helen have avoided resolving their differences and issues, their relationship will carry on deteriorating to a greater extent, until they will not be able to interact any longer as a team or â€Å"family†. Boy holds a fairly important role in the play, as Shelagh Delaney may have used him in order to represent a race and a whole group of people at the time. He is a twenty year old sailor that manages to infiltrate Jo’s heart and lighten up her life to a certain extent, for a short period of time. The reason why Shelagh Delaney doe not provide â€Å"boy† with a name, is because he ends up leaving her and breaking all his made promises, of returning and marrying her. His role in the play is of a young adult who meets Jo and eventually becomes her boyfriend. He also becomes the father of her baby, even though he is not aware of this. The relationship boy has with Jo is completely different to the ones she experiences with all the other characters, this one is of love and mutual understanding. â€Å"I love you†¦because you are daft.† I believe that the most important factor with regards to Jo’s feelings and other characters is that perhaps it is the first time she falls in love with someone, and is answered back in the same way. Even though â€Å"buy† offers love to Jo, he certainly doesn’t offer much security. This is because he enjoys having fun wherever he goes and is not able to make a promise and keep it. â€Å"you’re the first girl who I’ve met who really doesn’t care†¦Ã¢â‚¬  this quote shows that he is someone who’s had many relationships in the past, analyses different behaviours, and therefore has gained experience in the subject. I reckon that Shelagh Delaney wants to make the audience judgemental towards â€Å"boy† because of the way his relationship ends with Jo, and leaving to never come back. In my opinion â€Å"boy† only used Jo to sleep with and never really felt anything special for her, this truly shows the type f person he is. The audience may find that he is genuine and honest about his feelings but then turns out to be insincere and false, however what really damages his image to a higher extent is how he took advantage of Jo’s naivety and innocence. Geoff is another important character in the play, as Shelagh Delaney may have chosen him to represent the fears, hopes and dreams of a secluded group of people, who were judged by their sexual inclination. He is false a person who provides Jo with a strong friendship and some security that perhaps she took for granted. Geoff is someone who lacks self-confidence and is in desperate search for acceptance security and companionship, he wants Jo to look at him as a man with defects and expects from her as much as she receives from him. They have a peculiar relationship as Jo refers to him â€Å"as a big sister† or a womanly figure in the house, â€Å"you are just like an old woman really. You just unfold your bed, kiss me goodnight and sing me to sleep†. This kind of remark may have resulted embarrassing for him as he is a male and much older than Jo. Shelagh Delaney is very effective at revealing Geoff qualities, by telling us the large amounts of efforts he puts into Jo’s house and the way that he takes care of her, â€Å"someone’s got to look after you. You can’t look after yourself†. You would not expect this type of behaviour from a stranger and man in a male dominating society. Another good way the reader can see the qualities in Geoff is by comparing him to Helen, who is the total opposite of her and has taken better care of Jo in a short period of time than she has. From analysing Jo’s and Geoff relationship we can learn that during the time they spend living together they have both been happy and able to co-exist with each other, which is something Helen and Jo were never able to achieve. However there was always this barrier between Jo and Geoff, generated by their different attitudes towards life and other issues that revolved around their respective characters. While Geoff was optimistic, Jo was fairly negative and resembled Helen’s personality to some extent. This factor never really allowed them to enjoy their relationship and their time together to the maximum. â€Å"I think it would be best if you left this place Geoff I don’t think it’s doing you any good being here with me all the time† this tells us that Jo is being honest with him and knows about his need to experience a woman’s desire to prove whether his inclination towards a men is real. To some degree Jo is a little bit arrogant as she declares that she can be self-sufficient and doesn’t need from Geoff to carry on living a normal life. â€Å"Nobody asked you to stay here. You moved in on me, remember? If you don’t like it you can get out, can’t get†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Geoff is a maternal figure to Jo as he is making a great effort to help her out with the preparation for the coming of the baby; something Helen would be more appropriate at doing. â€Å"I thought you changed. Motherhood is supposed to come natural to women† he explain this which such patience and care that almost sounds like he has passed through motherhood himself. This maternal figure is very rare and distinctive in the play as he is the only in the play who offers this sort of care and guidance, despite him being a man. Geoff is nothing like Helen simply because they do not share any qualities or even defects. The only way in which he may resemble Helen’s behaviour is at the end of his role, when he decides to leave Jo and not rebel against Helen’s prejudices and power to throw him out of Jo’s and the baby’s life. just as Helen did, he ends up deserting Jo, and not thinking of the possible emotional crisis she may start to go through. At the end of the play Jo is left standing by herself lonely without anyone’s help and support to hep undergo the conceiving of her baby, and the rest of her life she may still have to live. The mood is quite bleak, grim and dull at this point most of the relationships between the characters have broken up. Helen has been thrown out of Peter’s house and longer is she able to enjoy financial stability or Peter’s company as a husband. I believe none of the relationships in the play were really meant to work just as much as Geoff and Jo would have never been able to coexist considering their different circumstances. Shelagh Delaney may have chosen the title â€Å"A Taste of Honey† because in a way all of the characters in the play find a hint of happiness for a short while, and then just as it came it quickly diminishes and becomes difficult once again. I believe that Shelagh Delaney was correct in choosing this title for the play because it is indeed a sequence of events that resemble the ups and downs in life and the way one can taste something good but then it’s taken away. It’s never really a constant patch of happiness throughout, but a constant struggle to keep going as much as possible.   

Trend of Self Medication Among Youngsters

ABSTRACT Objective: To determine the trend of self medication among youngsters. Methods: A survey was conducted in 4 areas of Karachi, Pakistan during May 2012. Data collected was entered using SPSS version 17 to generate descriptive statistics. Data analyzed done using chi-square test to check the associations among variables. Results: The result shows that the number of youngsters participated in this study were 100, having age range of 14-27 years, the overall response is positive. There females were 37 (37%) and males were 63 (63%). This was reflected by the majority of the samples was undergraduate youngsters.By the research we get the result that people think that they could understand their own illness themselves and that leads them to self medication. Qualification and understanding own illness is not independent. Lack of time is found to be a fact that males do self medication more often then females the trend towards self medication is increasing day by day. Conclusion: Sel f medication practice increasing in the youngsters of Karachi, Pakistan mostly in males and undergraduate youngsters under age of 18-22. The reason is lack of time or not consulting to the doctor.Need to educate the youngsters to avoid such practice majority know that self medication is incorrect and some time cause side effect. Key words: Self medication, youngsters, trend, prescription. 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Background of the study Self-medication is defined as obtaining and using medicine without the suggestion of a doctor either for diagnosis. Drugs for self-medication are normally name as ‘nonprescription' or ‘over the counter' (OTC) and are obtainable without advice of doctor's through chemists. Self medication is nowadays gradually being considered as a self-care component.Support of self-care is seen as give patients' every view to take accountability and create self-confidence in their ability to deal with their own health. Unlike other characteristics of self-car e, self-medication involves the use of medicines and medicines have the potential to do better as well as cause harm. This is mainly concern to these countries where there is lack of enforcement of system leading to accessibility of non prescription medicines over the counter like Pakistan. This results in extensive use of such drugs which is related with serious undesirable effects.Numerous cases studies have stated that unsuitable self-medication outcomes in wastage of resources and causes serious health hazard such as unwanted drug reactions, prolonged suffering and drug dependence. When the medication correctly done, self-medication might be save the time which spent in waiting to see a physician, may be cost-effective and also propose savings for medical schemes and the general healthcare system. The WHO has also pointed out that dependable self-medication can help patient and treat illness that do not need medical consultation and gives a cheaper option for treating common dis eases.With self-medication, the person tolerates primary accountability for the use of self-medication products. All parties concerned in self-medication should be attentive of the advantages and disadvantages of any self-medication product. Through many studies have been conducted in different populations to appraise the practice of self-medication there is a scarceness of studies on self-medication among university and medical students. To enhance our knowledge we carry on this agenda and targeted the youngsters to find out the practices of self-medication in youngsters of Karachi.This study is conduct on trend of Self-medication in youngsters of Karachi. Self medication trend is continuously increasing in youngsters. This study might be helpful to determine the rate of self medication in youngster of schools, colleges and universities of Karachi. This study also explores the injurious effects of self medication, causes for not discussing with the doctor and general issues for whi ch students rely on self medication. Self-medication is the healing of general health issues with drugs particularly proposed and labeled for utilize without any medical prescription and permitted as safe and useful for such medical issues.To enhance our information, we conduct this study in Karachi and especially target the youngsters to evaluate self medication in the youth. In Karachi, approximately every chemist sells medicines without a prescription of doctor; a phenomenon seen in many is developing countries. Self medication is a part of health care and it is measured as initial public health source in system of health care. Use of non-prescription medicines by people on their own initiative is a part of self medication and it is in common practice in youngsters for common issues related to their health.Self medication also encompasses the use of the medicines by the users for self perceived health problems or the continuing use of medications formally prescribed earlier. Furt her broading of the definition includes treatment of family members especially to minor and elderly. Adverse effects of self medication Its very common in our society that whenever we catch a cough, flu or any common disease we have fixed a prescription in our mind and we do self-medication in such situations. We ask any of our friends or neighbors who prescribes the medicine which was effective for him.We do these types of things but the main thing we forget in all this is going to a doctor. Some adverse effects of self-medication are as follows. Insomnia Due to self-medication you can face the problem of insomnia. Insomnia is a sleeping disorder this is very common now a days and one of the major reason to insomnia is self-medication. When this problem occurs again open you medicine box and do self-medication again for this problem too. This worsens your problem. When you take one type of medicine again and again you may addicted to it and you also get dependent on such medicines. Skin problems When you involve in self medication you will get some skin problem or any other allergy due to reaction of medicine. Skin problem that occur due to self-medication are itching and redness on your skin. Depression People who have a habit of taking medicines which relax them that people facing the problem of depression. Many people self-medicate themselves to get relax without the advice of doctor. This type of habit may cause serious problem and no one can deny the effects of this self-medication addiction. Skin problems through creams and lotionsSelf-medication is does not only mean to in take such medicines. Self-medication can also be using lotion or cream on your skin without the advice of doctor. This type of self medication can also cause many skin problems. 1. 2 Objective of the study The Aim/objective of this study is to determine the trend of Self medication among youngsters. 1. 3 Problem statement Although self-medication being an issue of global concern, espe cially in Pakistan self medication is very common and rising day by day. Literate people involve in the practices of self medication more than illiterate people.This study includes some general aspects of self medication to identify the frequency of self medication among the youngsters. 1. 4 Hypothesis Ho1. 4. 1:self medication among youngsters and age are independent. Ha 1. 4. 1:self medication among youngsters and age are not independent. Ho1. 4. 2: self medication among youngsters and gender are independent. Ha 1. 4. 2: self medication among youngsters and gender are not independent. Ho1. 4. 3: self medication among youngsters and qualification are independent. Ha 1. 4. : self medication among youngsters and qualification are not independent. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 Trends of Self-Medication According to Khalid (2010) in our country Self medication is an average. The counter sales of nearly all medicine are available without any prescription or regulation this is one of the majo r factor probably contributing to this phenomenon. In the practice of our dermatology, we commonly meet patients with acne infections due to use of topical self medication. The prevalence of self medication is extensively high in the acne infections patients in our residents.The most frequently used medication was potent topical steroids. 2. 2 Self-Medication practices According to Shankar et al (2002) Mild illness is the most common reason of self-medication which is mentioned in the literature, prior knowledge of treating related disease, lack of availability of healthcare personnel and financial considerations. Analgesics and antimicrobial are commonly used for self medications. In addition to allopathic medicines,  herbal medicines were also usually used for self-medication. 2. 3 Reasons for self-medication practiceAccording to Almasdy et al, (2011) Among university students the major reason for self-medication were their prior experiences and the majority of the authors agree d with this major reason of self medication, their health problems was measured as too insignificant and time savings. Family or friends guidance, non availability of transport, doctor was not available, capability to self-manage the symptom, urgency of the problem and have adequate information were other main reasons for self-medication practice.Have reported that the main reasons to self-medication practice among university student were lack of time and low cost consultation. 2. 4 Demographic characteristics and prevalence of self medication practice According to Hussain et al. (2011) many of these researches mentioned the mean age of undergraduates was under 25 years old. This was reflected by the majority of the samples was undergraduate students. In manner of sexual characteristics, prevalence of the undergraduates who have involved in self-medication is female.Three of these researches have been engaged to undergraduates majoring in equally health and non-health courses, while two of the studies have engaged to undergraduates simply majoring in health, and the rest did not revealed the field of the undergraduates involved in the studies. Frequency of self-medication observed among the university student was diverse. The occurrence of self-medication reported was mainly depend on how the query was created in the questionnaire.For example, the occurrence reported was authentic, if the question was concerned to the modern practice of self-medication. On the contrary, when asked whether the students had used any medication for the past one month, the incidence reported was low. However, some studies did not report the prevalence of self medication. Due to the difference in the methods used in studies, therefore, it is quite difficult to estimate the true prevalence rate of self-medication in university students. 2. 5 Benefits and Risks of Self Medication According to Carmel M et al. 2001) Practices of self-care for mild illnesses are increasingly encouraging by some governments, including self-medication. Support of self-care is observed as giving all probability to patients to take accountability and construct confidence in their capability to control their own health. Patient confidence is observed as a helpful step in the improvement of the correlation between patient and healthcare provider and is described as an significant health policy model. 2. 6 In? uences on Knowledge and Attitudes about Prescription Drugs among Teens.According to Twombly et al, (2008) escalating precise information about the hazards of recommended medicines misuse is expected to reduce misuse. In fact, there is an inverse relationship between level of perceived risk and likelihood of use when it comes to teenagers’ willingness to misuse prescription drugs. 2. 7 Symptoms leading to self-medication According to Zafar et al. (2008) Approximately in Pakistan, everyone can get medicine without any prescription, mostly pharmacy selling medicines without a d octor advise; this incident observed in every developing nations.Even, antibiotics and high potential medicines are easily available to the common man. The common practices of self-medication among undergraduates is leading to the main symptoms of self-medication were headache or mild pain; fever; flu, caught and cold; and diarrhea. Others symptoms includes allergy, skin problems, inability to sleep, vomiting, eye and ear symptoms, menstrual syndrome and others minor problems. This case study shows the outcome of the Pakistani youth's information, mind-set, and practice towards self medication. 2. 8 Sources of drug informationAccording to Hussain et al, (2008) in this research, the author explains sources of drug information in self-medication practice. In this research statement shows that the undergraduates obtain access to drug information from many resources. Which is relate to their own earlier experience, family, contacts or university course mates, pharmacy sales representati ve, doctor or nurse, and advertisement in the television, radio, newspaper, magazine or books. 2. 9 Problems-related to self-medication practices According to James et al, (2006) a new important findings significance of elf-medication highlighted in this literature was the effect of health instruction on the knowledge of drug’s side-effects amid the self medicating undergraduates. Calculate the effect of exposure to medical knowledge to equally the first year and senior medical undergraduates. The research exposed that troubles linked with self-medications were fewer in senior medical undergraduates as contrast to the first year students. Less awareness of medical information may be reason to the low self-assurance of the first year medical students 2. 0 Self -Medication among university students According to Mumtaz et al, (2011) Self medication mounting the probability of illegal use of medicine and medicine addiction and due to this the symptoms of disease are underlying th us are complicating the problem, produce drug resistance and create difficulty to diagnosis. On the other side many of people involved in self medication who accept accountability and are cautious is a source saving phenomenon to the health system. Easy accessibility of the medicine by the counter sales increases self medication.Self medication is a phenomenon and practiced almost in the countries all over the world with different prevalence. In the low and middle income countries, commonness of self medication is higher. This research is explained that the educated people tend to practice self medication more than uneducated peoples. According to this research the frequency of self medication among undergraduates of medical and non medical is nearly 80%. This study endorses earlier reported local estimates of self medication among university students. . 11 Self-Medication in Nigeria According to Fadare et al, (2011) now a day’s Self-medication is growing in the population ma ny counties as a common type of self-care behavior. Many global researches have explored the frequency and characteristics of self-medication practices at the resident’s level. In Nigeria, many studies conduct to find the frequency of self-medication in general; still the frequency of antibiotic self-medication among medical undergraduates has not been conducted.The interest in studying this practice among this select group is due to the fact that they are the future prescribes and health educators of the population of Nigeria. 2. 12 Evaluation of Self-Medication According to SD Sontakke et al, (2011) The World Health Organization has also identified that proper self-medication can help patients and treat illness that do not need medical consultation and gives a cheaper substitute for treating common diseases. With self-medication, the person takes primary accountability for the use of self-medication products.Every individual must be aware of advantages and disadvantages of self medication products who involved in self-medication practices . however many researches has been conducted in different populations to assess the frequency of self-medication there is a paucity of studies on self-medication among medical students. Support of self-care is considered as providing patients' every opportunity to construct self-confidence in their capability to control their own health. Unlike other aspects of self-care, self-medication involves the use of drugs and drugs have the potential to do good as well as cause harm. . 13 Self-medication in Sri lanka According to Wijesinghe et al, (2012) Self medication growing with increasing literacy and it is even appreciated so as to have self-sufficiency for healing, preventive , primitives and rehabilitative care . If done properly, it is helpful to save expenses of health care seekers. therefore, considering the usefulness of self-medication, the World Health Organization (WHO) has focused to develop strategy for regul atory estimation of the medicines suitable for self-medication. he frequency of Self-medication is very familiar among women, youngster, those individuals who living alone and the individuals who belongs to low financial status (SES), sufferers of chronic ailments and psychiatric conditions. Many researches in Sri Lanka were conducted to city areas which have well built-up health and hospitals networks. Substitute indicators such as self-medication prevalence for malaria indicate that self-medication is relatively low in rural areas. 2. 14 Self-Medication pattern in Punjab According to S Shveta et al, (2011) the frequency of self medication practices is common in the state.Fever, cough and cold are reasons for the use of self-medication. The most common drugs which is commonly used for self-medication is tonics and food supplements and it is taken frequently without prescription. We recommend that holistic approach should be taken to prevent this problem, which contain correct knowl edge and information regarding the self medication and strictness concerning pharmaceutical marketing. Furthermore especially in case of Punjab state ban must be implemented on counter sale of medicines. Dispensing modes in the state required to be enhanced by proper education, regulatory and administrative strategies. . 15 Self-Medication in Children’s According to Oshikoya et al, (2007) medicine use in children is of great anxiety worldwide and has received a lot of attention. Various researches have been performed in the urbanized and developing countries, and have all the countries faced many problems from mistreat and abuse of recommended medicines, and errors of medications. Children include a larger percentage of the residents in developing countries and are responsible to many illnesses as a effect of poverty. The majority of medicines in children are used outside of hospitals, both as recommended and non- recommended medicines.The primary reply by the majority famili es too many diseases in their children has been found to be use of non-prescribed medicines . Self-medication is very common among urban children in Nigeria. The presented laws concerning the use and sale of over the counter medicine, prescribed and non-prescribed drugs must be reinforced to ensure normal use of medicines. 2. 16 Self-medication practices for drug consumers According to Andualem et al, (2004) On Socio-demographic the respondents concealed the characteristic of drug consumers consist of all age category like both genders, pregnant women and breast-feeding mothers.Self-medication illnesses that reported very commonly in the respondents were headache, fever, cold, respiratory tract infection and gastrointestinal diseases. Education for the self-medication should be provided to public as well as health care providers ;i. e; this type of illnesses can be easily self-treated and diagnosed and the drug products to be used in promoting the responsible self-medication. 2. 17 Self-medication in West Uttarpradesh According to Ghosh et al, (2010) some students reported that they were alcoholic, smoker or involve in some chronic problems i. . non-communicable diseases, they have less awareness about the medicines that they use with smoking, alcohol or suffer problems with chronic diseases. Non-seriousness related to the disease is the most common reason reported for self-treated and for self-medication, previous experience on the medicine and emergency use. 2. 18 Assessment of Self-medication According to Sawalha, (2007) In An-Najah students the preference of self-medication in very common. Practice of treating this condition is done either simple or by previous experience.Even important self-medication predictors did present in the studied group, types of medications knowledge on the level of self-care orientation can be significant in analyzing the self-medication practices. 2. 19 Health care strategies According to Haider et al, (1995) treatment from som e medical systems found in majority of cases. Health care behavior for childhood illnesses and assessment of the degree and the reasons for self-medication assess in Karachi, Pakistan. The main reason is the good past experience of self-medication. he main reason is the use of different medicines by health professional that influence the parents for self-medicate to their children. Self-medication is hard to reduce but some information can be made to discourage wrong use of harmful drugs. 2. 20 Self-medication (WHO). According to WHO (1988) The WHO pointed that Self medication can help and treat illness that does not require any consultation of medication and provides a cheaper option for treat such common diseases. Yet, the person bears basic responsibility for the use of self-medication products.Due to self-medication products parties should be aware about the benefits and risks of self-medication. 3 METHADOLOGY This part presents an overview of the methods to be used in the study . Areas covered in this part include data collection, variables, sample and sampling techniques and model for analyzed the data. 3. 1 Data In this study primary data is used for gathering information. A survey was conducted in 4 areas of Karachi, Pakistan during May 2012. Data collection was entered using SPSS version 17 to generate descriptive statistics.Data analyzed complete using chi-square test to check the associations between variables. 3. 2 Variables Variables used in this study are 1. Age 2. Gender 3. Qualification 3. 3 Sample and Sampling techniques Convenience sampling techniques is use to select respondents from Gulshan-e-iqbal area. A convenience sample of 100 participants was taken. A questionnaire was distributed among participants after explaining the background of the study and objective. 3. 4 Model The model we are used. To summarize the questionnaires we used statistical model of chi-square.According to Zafar et al (2008) the author used Chi-square in his study. 4 RESULT Table: 1 QUALIFICATION v/s VARIABLES DESCRIPTION| CHI SQUARE| SIG VALUE| RESULTS| | | | | MY ILLNESS| 29. 354| 0. 007| Reject| SELF MEDICATION| 6. 425| 0. 6| Accept| PRESCRIBE| 11. 48| 0. 321| Accept| LACK OF TIME| 16. 431| 0. 37| Accept| HIGH FEES| 7. 423| 0. 492| Accept| SIDE EFFECT| 12. 461| 0. 132| Accept| DANGEROUS| 10. 582| 0. 221| Accept| YOUNGSTERS| 12. 285| 0. 139| Accept| COMMUNICATION CHAIN| 16. 846| 0. 032| Reject| It is found that the chi-square and sig. alue shows that the self medication is increasing in youngsters. the sig. value of the qualification shows that self medication (0. 6), prescribe (0. 321), lack of time (0. 37), high fees (0. 492), side effects (0. 132), dangerous (0. 221), youngsters (0. 139) these all variables were accepted and shows that are independent to the qualification Table: 2 GENDER v/s VARIABLES DESCRIPTION| CHI SQUARE| SIG VALUE| RESULTS| | | | | MY ILLNESS| 6. 053| 0. 195| Accept| SELF MEDICATION| 3. 334| 0. 504| Accept| PRESCRIBE| 9. 368| 0. 095| Accept| LACK OF TIME| 14. 038| 0. 007| Reject| HIGH FEES| 2. 38| 0. 71| Accept| SIDE EFFECT| 5. 008| 0. 286| Accept| DANGEROUS| 8. 898| 0. 064| Accept| YOUNGSTERS| 2. 356| 0. 671| Accept| COMMUNICATION CHAIN| 1. 361| 0. 851| Accept| It is found that the chi-square and sig. value shows that the self medication is increasing in youngsters. the sig. value of the gender that My illness (0. 195), self medication(0. 504), Prescribe (0. 095)high fees(0. 71),side effects(0. 286), dangerous(0. 064), youngsters(0. 671), Communication chain (0. 851) these all variables were accepted and shows that are independent to the gender. Table: 3 AGE v/s VARIABLESDESCRIPTION| CHI SQUARE| SIG VALUE| RESULTS| | | | | MY ILLNESS| 12. 914| 0. 115| Accept| SELF MEDICATION| 7. 128| 0. 523| Accept| PRESCRIBE| 7. 612| 0. 667| Accept| LACK OF TIME| 9. 468| 0. 304| Accept| HIGH FEES| 12. 789| 0. 119| Accept| SIDE EFFECT| 2. 677| 0. 953| Accept| DANGEROUS| 11. 182| 0. 192| Accept| YOUNGSTERS| 19. 388| 0. 013| Reject| COMMUNICATION CHAIN| 15. 794| 0. 045| Reject| It is found that the chi-square and sig. value shows that the self medication is increasing in youngsters. the sig. value of the age that my illness (0. 115), self medication (0. 23), prescribe (0. 667), lack of time (0. 304), high fees (0. 119), side effects (0. 953), dangerous (0. 192) these all variables were accepted and shows that are independent to the age. 5 DISCUSSION In the light of the literature review self medication is a most common practice. In this study mostly males involve in self medication. The number of youngsters participate in this study were 100, having age range of 14-27 years, the overall reply is positive. There females were 37 (37%) and males were 63 (63%). This shows that the greater part of the samples was undergraduate youngsters.In term of gender, majority of the youngsters who adept self-medication are males. Moreover, the sampling methods were varied among the studies, range from conv enience. The trend of self-medication is high in undergraduate youngsters as compared to the inter and metric level youngsters. Mostly Youngsters have a preference of self-medication, 63% of undergraduates, 18% of inter and only 19% of metric youngsters involve in self medication. By the research we get the result that people think that they could understand their own illness themselves and that leads them to self medication.Qualification and understanding own illnesses are not independent. So we accepted alternative hypothesis. Increasing communication chain is also one of the major reasons of increment of self medication in well qualified too. The above data was found to be good sufficient to maintain from literature review that the trend towards self medication is increasing literally. 6 CONCLUSION Self medication practice increasing in the youngsters of Karachi, Pakistan mostly in males and undergraduate youngsters under age of 18-22.The reason is lack of time or not consulting to the doctor. Need to educate the youngsters to avoid such practice majority know that self medication is incorrect and some time cause side effect. 7 BIBLOGRAPHY Almasdy Dedy & Azmi Sherrif , (2011 ), Self-Medication Practice with Nonprescription Medication among University Students: a review of the literature, Archives of Pharmacy Practice, Vol 2, No 3, pp 95-100. Andualem Tenaw, B. Pharm, BA, et al, (2004), SELF-MEDICATION PRACTICES IN ADDIS ABABA: A PROSPECTIVE STUDY, Ethiopia Journal health science, Vol 14, No 1, pp 1-11.Carmel M, Hughes; McElnay, James C; Fleming, Glenda F. , (2001), Bene? ts and risks of self medication, Drug Safety, Vol 24, No 14, pp 1027-1037. Fadare Joseph O & Igbiks Tamuno, (2011), Antibiotic self-medication among university medical undergraduates in Northern Nigeria, Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology, Vol 3, No 5, pp 217-220. Ghosh Sourav, Vikas, Vimal, et al, (2010), Evaluation of the practice of self medication among college students in west U ttar Pradesh, International Journal of Pharma Professional's Research, Vol 1, No 1, pp 14-18.Haider S, Thaver IH, (1995), Self medication or self care: implication for primary health care strategies, J Pak Med Assoc, Vol 45, No11, pp 297-298. Hussain Azhar, Asifa Khanum,(2008), Self medication among university students of Islamabad, Pakistan- a preliminary study, Southern Med Review, Vol 1, No 1, pp 14-16. Hussain Shahzad, Farnaz Malik, Kazi Muhammad Ashfaq, et al , (2011), Prevalence of self-medication and health-seeking behavior in a developing country, African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Vol 5 , No 7, pp 972-978 James Henry, Shailendra S, Handu Khalid A.J, et al, (2006), Evaluation of the knowledge, attitude and practice of self-medication among first-year medical students, Med Princ Practice, Vol 15, No 4, pp 270-275. Khalid Tanzeela, Tariq Iqbal, (2010),Trends of self medication in patients with acne vulgarus, JUMDC, Vol 1, No 1, pp 10-13. Mumtaz Yasmin, S. M. Ashraf Jahangeer, Tahira Mujtaba, et al, (2011), Self Medication among University Students of Karachi, JLUMHS, Vol 10, No 3, pp 102-105. Oshikoya K A, O F Njokanma, J A Bello, et al, (2007), Family self-medication for children in an urban area of Nigeria , Paediatric and Perinatal Drug Therapy, Vol 8, No 3, pp 124-130.S Shveta, Jagmohan S, (2011), A study of self medication pattern in Punjab, Indian Journal of Pharmacy Practice, Vol 4, No 2, pp 43-46. Sawalha, Ansam F, (2007), Assessment of self-medication practice among University students in Palestine: Therapeutic and Toxicity Implications, The Islamic University Journal (Series of Natural Studies and Engineering), Vol 15, No 2, pp 67-82. SD Sontakke, Bajait CS , Pimpalkhute SA, et al, (2011), Comparative study of evaluation of self-medication practices in first and third year medical student, International Journal of Biological ; Medical Research , Vol 2, No 2, pp 561-564.Shankar PR, P Partha and N Shenoy, (2002), Self-medication and no n-doctor prescription practices in Pokhara valley, Western Nepal: a questionnaire-based study, BMC Family Practice, Vol 3, No 17, pp 1-7. Twombly Eric C ; Kristen D. Holtz, (2008), Teens and the Misuse of Prescription Drugs:Evidence-Based Recommendations to Curb a Growing Societal Problem, J Primary Prevent, Vol 29, No 18, pp 503–516. WHO, (1988), The role of pharmacist in self-care and self-medication, Netherland.Wijesinghe R Pushpa, Ravindra L Jayakody, Rohini de A Seneviratne, (2012), Prevalence and predictors of self-medication in a selected urban and rural district of Sri Lanka, WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health, Vol 1, No 1, pp 28-41. Zafar Syed Nabeel, Reema Syed, Sana Waqar, et al, (2008), Self medication amongst university students of Karachi: prevalence, knowledge and attitudes, J Pak Med Assoc, Vol 58, No 4, pp 214-217. http://apps. who. int/medicinedocs/pdf/whozip32e/whozip32e. pdf Trend of Self Medication Among Youngsters ABSTRACT Objective: To determine the trend of self medication among youngsters. Methods: A survey was conducted in 4 areas of Karachi, Pakistan during May 2012. Data collected was entered using SPSS version 17 to generate descriptive statistics. Data analyzed done using chi-square test to check the associations among variables. Results: The result shows that the number of youngsters participated in this study were 100, having age range of 14-27 years, the overall response is positive. There females were 37 (37%) and males were 63 (63%). This was reflected by the majority of the samples was undergraduate youngsters.By the research we get the result that people think that they could understand their own illness themselves and that leads them to self medication. Qualification and understanding own illness is not independent. Lack of time is found to be a fact that males do self medication more often then females the trend towards self medication is increasing day by day. Conclusion: Sel f medication practice increasing in the youngsters of Karachi, Pakistan mostly in males and undergraduate youngsters under age of 18-22. The reason is lack of time or not consulting to the doctor.Need to educate the youngsters to avoid such practice majority know that self medication is incorrect and some time cause side effect. Key words: Self medication, youngsters, trend, prescription. 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Background of the study Self-medication is defined as obtaining and using medicine without the suggestion of a doctor either for diagnosis. Drugs for self-medication are normally name as ‘nonprescription' or ‘over the counter' (OTC) and are obtainable without advice of doctor's through chemists. Self medication is nowadays gradually being considered as a self-care component.Support of self-care is seen as give patients' every view to take accountability and create self-confidence in their ability to deal with their own health. Unlike other characteristics of self-car e, self-medication involves the use of medicines and medicines have the potential to do better as well as cause harm. This is mainly concern to these countries where there is lack of enforcement of system leading to accessibility of non prescription medicines over the counter like Pakistan. This results in extensive use of such drugs which is related with serious undesirable effects.Numerous cases studies have stated that unsuitable self-medication outcomes in wastage of resources and causes serious health hazard such as unwanted drug reactions, prolonged suffering and drug dependence. When the medication correctly done, self-medication might be save the time which spent in waiting to see a physician, may be cost-effective and also propose savings for medical schemes and the general healthcare system. The WHO has also pointed out that dependable self-medication can help patient and treat illness that do not need medical consultation and gives a cheaper option for treating common dis eases.With self-medication, the person tolerates primary accountability for the use of self-medication products. All parties concerned in self-medication should be attentive of the advantages and disadvantages of any self-medication product. Through many studies have been conducted in different populations to appraise the practice of self-medication there is a scarceness of studies on self-medication among university and medical students. To enhance our knowledge we carry on this agenda and targeted the youngsters to find out the practices of self-medication in youngsters of Karachi.This study is conduct on trend of Self-medication in youngsters of Karachi. Self medication trend is continuously increasing in youngsters. This study might be helpful to determine the rate of self medication in youngster of schools, colleges and universities of Karachi. This study also explores the injurious effects of self medication, causes for not discussing with the doctor and general issues for whi ch students rely on self medication. Self-medication is the healing of general health issues with drugs particularly proposed and labeled for utilize without any medical prescription and permitted as safe and useful for such medical issues.To enhance our information, we conduct this study in Karachi and especially target the youngsters to evaluate self medication in the youth. In Karachi, approximately every chemist sells medicines without a prescription of doctor; a phenomenon seen in many is developing countries. Self medication is a part of health care and it is measured as initial public health source in system of health care. Use of non-prescription medicines by people on their own initiative is a part of self medication and it is in common practice in youngsters for common issues related to their health.Self medication also encompasses the use of the medicines by the users for self perceived health problems or the continuing use of medications formally prescribed earlier. Furt her broading of the definition includes treatment of family members especially to minor and elderly. Adverse effects of self medication Its very common in our society that whenever we catch a cough, flu or any common disease we have fixed a prescription in our mind and we do self-medication in such situations. We ask any of our friends or neighbors who prescribes the medicine which was effective for him.We do these types of things but the main thing we forget in all this is going to a doctor. Some adverse effects of self-medication are as follows. Insomnia Due to self-medication you can face the problem of insomnia. Insomnia is a sleeping disorder this is very common now a days and one of the major reason to insomnia is self-medication. When this problem occurs again open you medicine box and do self-medication again for this problem too. This worsens your problem. When you take one type of medicine again and again you may addicted to it and you also get dependent on such medicines. Skin problems When you involve in self medication you will get some skin problem or any other allergy due to reaction of medicine. Skin problem that occur due to self-medication are itching and redness on your skin. Depression People who have a habit of taking medicines which relax them that people facing the problem of depression. Many people self-medicate themselves to get relax without the advice of doctor. This type of habit may cause serious problem and no one can deny the effects of this self-medication addiction. Skin problems through creams and lotionsSelf-medication is does not only mean to in take such medicines. Self-medication can also be using lotion or cream on your skin without the advice of doctor. This type of self medication can also cause many skin problems. 1. 2 Objective of the study The Aim/objective of this study is to determine the trend of Self medication among youngsters. 1. 3 Problem statement Although self-medication being an issue of global concern, espe cially in Pakistan self medication is very common and rising day by day. Literate people involve in the practices of self medication more than illiterate people.This study includes some general aspects of self medication to identify the frequency of self medication among the youngsters. 1. 4 Hypothesis Ho1. 4. 1:self medication among youngsters and age are independent. Ha 1. 4. 1:self medication among youngsters and age are not independent. Ho1. 4. 2: self medication among youngsters and gender are independent. Ha 1. 4. 2: self medication among youngsters and gender are not independent. Ho1. 4. 3: self medication among youngsters and qualification are independent. Ha 1. 4. : self medication among youngsters and qualification are not independent. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 Trends of Self-Medication According to Khalid (2010) in our country Self medication is an average. The counter sales of nearly all medicine are available without any prescription or regulation this is one of the majo r factor probably contributing to this phenomenon. In the practice of our dermatology, we commonly meet patients with acne infections due to use of topical self medication. The prevalence of self medication is extensively high in the acne infections patients in our residents.The most frequently used medication was potent topical steroids. 2. 2 Self-Medication practices According to Shankar et al (2002) Mild illness is the most common reason of self-medication which is mentioned in the literature, prior knowledge of treating related disease, lack of availability of healthcare personnel and financial considerations. Analgesics and antimicrobial are commonly used for self medications. In addition to allopathic medicines,  herbal medicines were also usually used for self-medication. 2. 3 Reasons for self-medication practiceAccording to Almasdy et al, (2011) Among university students the major reason for self-medication were their prior experiences and the majority of the authors agree d with this major reason of self medication, their health problems was measured as too insignificant and time savings. Family or friends guidance, non availability of transport, doctor was not available, capability to self-manage the symptom, urgency of the problem and have adequate information were other main reasons for self-medication practice.Have reported that the main reasons to self-medication practice among university student were lack of time and low cost consultation. 2. 4 Demographic characteristics and prevalence of self medication practice According to Hussain et al. (2011) many of these researches mentioned the mean age of undergraduates was under 25 years old. This was reflected by the majority of the samples was undergraduate students. In manner of sexual characteristics, prevalence of the undergraduates who have involved in self-medication is female.Three of these researches have been engaged to undergraduates majoring in equally health and non-health courses, while two of the studies have engaged to undergraduates simply majoring in health, and the rest did not revealed the field of the undergraduates involved in the studies. Frequency of self-medication observed among the university student was diverse. The occurrence of self-medication reported was mainly depend on how the query was created in the questionnaire.For example, the occurrence reported was authentic, if the question was concerned to the modern practice of self-medication. On the contrary, when asked whether the students had used any medication for the past one month, the incidence reported was low. However, some studies did not report the prevalence of self medication. Due to the difference in the methods used in studies, therefore, it is quite difficult to estimate the true prevalence rate of self-medication in university students. 2. 5 Benefits and Risks of Self Medication According to Carmel M et al. 2001) Practices of self-care for mild illnesses are increasingly encouraging by some governments, including self-medication. Support of self-care is observed as giving all probability to patients to take accountability and construct confidence in their capability to control their own health. Patient confidence is observed as a helpful step in the improvement of the correlation between patient and healthcare provider and is described as an significant health policy model. 2. 6 In? uences on Knowledge and Attitudes about Prescription Drugs among Teens.According to Twombly et al, (2008) escalating precise information about the hazards of recommended medicines misuse is expected to reduce misuse. In fact, there is an inverse relationship between level of perceived risk and likelihood of use when it comes to teenagers’ willingness to misuse prescription drugs. 2. 7 Symptoms leading to self-medication According to Zafar et al. (2008) Approximately in Pakistan, everyone can get medicine without any prescription, mostly pharmacy selling medicines without a d octor advise; this incident observed in every developing nations.Even, antibiotics and high potential medicines are easily available to the common man. The common practices of self-medication among undergraduates is leading to the main symptoms of self-medication were headache or mild pain; fever; flu, caught and cold; and diarrhea. Others symptoms includes allergy, skin problems, inability to sleep, vomiting, eye and ear symptoms, menstrual syndrome and others minor problems. This case study shows the outcome of the Pakistani youth's information, mind-set, and practice towards self medication. 2. 8 Sources of drug informationAccording to Hussain et al, (2008) in this research, the author explains sources of drug information in self-medication practice. In this research statement shows that the undergraduates obtain access to drug information from many resources. Which is relate to their own earlier experience, family, contacts or university course mates, pharmacy sales representati ve, doctor or nurse, and advertisement in the television, radio, newspaper, magazine or books. 2. 9 Problems-related to self-medication practices According to James et al, (2006) a new important findings significance of elf-medication highlighted in this literature was the effect of health instruction on the knowledge of drug’s side-effects amid the self medicating undergraduates. Calculate the effect of exposure to medical knowledge to equally the first year and senior medical undergraduates. The research exposed that troubles linked with self-medications were fewer in senior medical undergraduates as contrast to the first year students. Less awareness of medical information may be reason to the low self-assurance of the first year medical students 2. 0 Self -Medication among university students According to Mumtaz et al, (2011) Self medication mounting the probability of illegal use of medicine and medicine addiction and due to this the symptoms of disease are underlying th us are complicating the problem, produce drug resistance and create difficulty to diagnosis. On the other side many of people involved in self medication who accept accountability and are cautious is a source saving phenomenon to the health system. Easy accessibility of the medicine by the counter sales increases self medication.Self medication is a phenomenon and practiced almost in the countries all over the world with different prevalence. In the low and middle income countries, commonness of self medication is higher. This research is explained that the educated people tend to practice self medication more than uneducated peoples. According to this research the frequency of self medication among undergraduates of medical and non medical is nearly 80%. This study endorses earlier reported local estimates of self medication among university students. . 11 Self-Medication in Nigeria According to Fadare et al, (2011) now a day’s Self-medication is growing in the population ma ny counties as a common type of self-care behavior. Many global researches have explored the frequency and characteristics of self-medication practices at the resident’s level. In Nigeria, many studies conduct to find the frequency of self-medication in general; still the frequency of antibiotic self-medication among medical undergraduates has not been conducted.The interest in studying this practice among this select group is due to the fact that they are the future prescribes and health educators of the population of Nigeria. 2. 12 Evaluation of Self-Medication According to SD Sontakke et al, (2011) The World Health Organization has also identified that proper self-medication can help patients and treat illness that do not need medical consultation and gives a cheaper substitute for treating common diseases. With self-medication, the person takes primary accountability for the use of self-medication products.Every individual must be aware of advantages and disadvantages of self medication products who involved in self-medication practices . however many researches has been conducted in different populations to assess the frequency of self-medication there is a paucity of studies on self-medication among medical students. Support of self-care is considered as providing patients' every opportunity to construct self-confidence in their capability to control their own health. Unlike other aspects of self-care, self-medication involves the use of drugs and drugs have the potential to do good as well as cause harm. . 13 Self-medication in Sri lanka According to Wijesinghe et al, (2012) Self medication growing with increasing literacy and it is even appreciated so as to have self-sufficiency for healing, preventive , primitives and rehabilitative care . If done properly, it is helpful to save expenses of health care seekers. therefore, considering the usefulness of self-medication, the World Health Organization (WHO) has focused to develop strategy for regul atory estimation of the medicines suitable for self-medication. he frequency of Self-medication is very familiar among women, youngster, those individuals who living alone and the individuals who belongs to low financial status (SES), sufferers of chronic ailments and psychiatric conditions. Many researches in Sri Lanka were conducted to city areas which have well built-up health and hospitals networks. Substitute indicators such as self-medication prevalence for malaria indicate that self-medication is relatively low in rural areas. 2. 14 Self-Medication pattern in Punjab According to S Shveta et al, (2011) the frequency of self medication practices is common in the state.Fever, cough and cold are reasons for the use of self-medication. The most common drugs which is commonly used for self-medication is tonics and food supplements and it is taken frequently without prescription. We recommend that holistic approach should be taken to prevent this problem, which contain correct knowl edge and information regarding the self medication and strictness concerning pharmaceutical marketing. Furthermore especially in case of Punjab state ban must be implemented on counter sale of medicines. Dispensing modes in the state required to be enhanced by proper education, regulatory and administrative strategies. . 15 Self-Medication in Children’s According to Oshikoya et al, (2007) medicine use in children is of great anxiety worldwide and has received a lot of attention. Various researches have been performed in the urbanized and developing countries, and have all the countries faced many problems from mistreat and abuse of recommended medicines, and errors of medications. Children include a larger percentage of the residents in developing countries and are responsible to many illnesses as a effect of poverty. The majority of medicines in children are used outside of hospitals, both as recommended and non- recommended medicines.The primary reply by the majority famili es too many diseases in their children has been found to be use of non-prescribed medicines . Self-medication is very common among urban children in Nigeria. The presented laws concerning the use and sale of over the counter medicine, prescribed and non-prescribed drugs must be reinforced to ensure normal use of medicines. 2. 16 Self-medication practices for drug consumers According to Andualem et al, (2004) On Socio-demographic the respondents concealed the characteristic of drug consumers consist of all age category like both genders, pregnant women and breast-feeding mothers.Self-medication illnesses that reported very commonly in the respondents were headache, fever, cold, respiratory tract infection and gastrointestinal diseases. Education for the self-medication should be provided to public as well as health care providers ;i. e; this type of illnesses can be easily self-treated and diagnosed and the drug products to be used in promoting the responsible self-medication. 2. 17 Self-medication in West Uttarpradesh According to Ghosh et al, (2010) some students reported that they were alcoholic, smoker or involve in some chronic problems i. . non-communicable diseases, they have less awareness about the medicines that they use with smoking, alcohol or suffer problems with chronic diseases. Non-seriousness related to the disease is the most common reason reported for self-treated and for self-medication, previous experience on the medicine and emergency use. 2. 18 Assessment of Self-medication According to Sawalha, (2007) In An-Najah students the preference of self-medication in very common. Practice of treating this condition is done either simple or by previous experience.Even important self-medication predictors did present in the studied group, types of medications knowledge on the level of self-care orientation can be significant in analyzing the self-medication practices. 2. 19 Health care strategies According to Haider et al, (1995) treatment from som e medical systems found in majority of cases. Health care behavior for childhood illnesses and assessment of the degree and the reasons for self-medication assess in Karachi, Pakistan. The main reason is the good past experience of self-medication. he main reason is the use of different medicines by health professional that influence the parents for self-medicate to their children. Self-medication is hard to reduce but some information can be made to discourage wrong use of harmful drugs. 2. 20 Self-medication (WHO). According to WHO (1988) The WHO pointed that Self medication can help and treat illness that does not require any consultation of medication and provides a cheaper option for treat such common diseases. Yet, the person bears basic responsibility for the use of self-medication products.Due to self-medication products parties should be aware about the benefits and risks of self-medication. 3 METHADOLOGY This part presents an overview of the methods to be used in the study . Areas covered in this part include data collection, variables, sample and sampling techniques and model for analyzed the data. 3. 1 Data In this study primary data is used for gathering information. A survey was conducted in 4 areas of Karachi, Pakistan during May 2012. Data collection was entered using SPSS version 17 to generate descriptive statistics.Data analyzed complete using chi-square test to check the associations between variables. 3. 2 Variables Variables used in this study are 1. Age 2. Gender 3. Qualification 3. 3 Sample and Sampling techniques Convenience sampling techniques is use to select respondents from Gulshan-e-iqbal area. A convenience sample of 100 participants was taken. A questionnaire was distributed among participants after explaining the background of the study and objective. 3. 4 Model The model we are used. To summarize the questionnaires we used statistical model of chi-square.According to Zafar et al (2008) the author used Chi-square in his study. 4 RESULT Table: 1 QUALIFICATION v/s VARIABLES DESCRIPTION| CHI SQUARE| SIG VALUE| RESULTS| | | | | MY ILLNESS| 29. 354| 0. 007| Reject| SELF MEDICATION| 6. 425| 0. 6| Accept| PRESCRIBE| 11. 48| 0. 321| Accept| LACK OF TIME| 16. 431| 0. 37| Accept| HIGH FEES| 7. 423| 0. 492| Accept| SIDE EFFECT| 12. 461| 0. 132| Accept| DANGEROUS| 10. 582| 0. 221| Accept| YOUNGSTERS| 12. 285| 0. 139| Accept| COMMUNICATION CHAIN| 16. 846| 0. 032| Reject| It is found that the chi-square and sig. alue shows that the self medication is increasing in youngsters. the sig. value of the qualification shows that self medication (0. 6), prescribe (0. 321), lack of time (0. 37), high fees (0. 492), side effects (0. 132), dangerous (0. 221), youngsters (0. 139) these all variables were accepted and shows that are independent to the qualification Table: 2 GENDER v/s VARIABLES DESCRIPTION| CHI SQUARE| SIG VALUE| RESULTS| | | | | MY ILLNESS| 6. 053| 0. 195| Accept| SELF MEDICATION| 3. 334| 0. 504| Accept| PRESCRIBE| 9. 368| 0. 095| Accept| LACK OF TIME| 14. 038| 0. 007| Reject| HIGH FEES| 2. 38| 0. 71| Accept| SIDE EFFECT| 5. 008| 0. 286| Accept| DANGEROUS| 8. 898| 0. 064| Accept| YOUNGSTERS| 2. 356| 0. 671| Accept| COMMUNICATION CHAIN| 1. 361| 0. 851| Accept| It is found that the chi-square and sig. value shows that the self medication is increasing in youngsters. the sig. value of the gender that My illness (0. 195), self medication(0. 504), Prescribe (0. 095)high fees(0. 71),side effects(0. 286), dangerous(0. 064), youngsters(0. 671), Communication chain (0. 851) these all variables were accepted and shows that are independent to the gender. Table: 3 AGE v/s VARIABLESDESCRIPTION| CHI SQUARE| SIG VALUE| RESULTS| | | | | MY ILLNESS| 12. 914| 0. 115| Accept| SELF MEDICATION| 7. 128| 0. 523| Accept| PRESCRIBE| 7. 612| 0. 667| Accept| LACK OF TIME| 9. 468| 0. 304| Accept| HIGH FEES| 12. 789| 0. 119| Accept| SIDE EFFECT| 2. 677| 0. 953| Accept| DANGEROUS| 11. 182| 0. 192| Accept| YOUNGSTERS| 19. 388| 0. 013| Reject| COMMUNICATION CHAIN| 15. 794| 0. 045| Reject| It is found that the chi-square and sig. value shows that the self medication is increasing in youngsters. the sig. value of the age that my illness (0. 115), self medication (0. 23), prescribe (0. 667), lack of time (0. 304), high fees (0. 119), side effects (0. 953), dangerous (0. 192) these all variables were accepted and shows that are independent to the age. 5 DISCUSSION In the light of the literature review self medication is a most common practice. In this study mostly males involve in self medication. The number of youngsters participate in this study were 100, having age range of 14-27 years, the overall reply is positive. There females were 37 (37%) and males were 63 (63%). This shows that the greater part of the samples was undergraduate youngsters.In term of gender, majority of the youngsters who adept self-medication are males. Moreover, the sampling methods were varied among the studies, range from conv enience. The trend of self-medication is high in undergraduate youngsters as compared to the inter and metric level youngsters. Mostly Youngsters have a preference of self-medication, 63% of undergraduates, 18% of inter and only 19% of metric youngsters involve in self medication. By the research we get the result that people think that they could understand their own illness themselves and that leads them to self medication.Qualification and understanding own illnesses are not independent. So we accepted alternative hypothesis. Increasing communication chain is also one of the major reasons of increment of self medication in well qualified too. The above data was found to be good sufficient to maintain from literature review that the trend towards self medication is increasing literally. 6 CONCLUSION Self medication practice increasing in the youngsters of Karachi, Pakistan mostly in males and undergraduate youngsters under age of 18-22.The reason is lack of time or not consulting to the doctor. Need to educate the youngsters to avoid such practice majority know that self medication is incorrect and some time cause side effect. 7 BIBLOGRAPHY Almasdy Dedy & Azmi Sherrif , (2011 ), Self-Medication Practice with Nonprescription Medication among University Students: a review of the literature, Archives of Pharmacy Practice, Vol 2, No 3, pp 95-100. Andualem Tenaw, B. Pharm, BA, et al, (2004), SELF-MEDICATION PRACTICES IN ADDIS ABABA: A PROSPECTIVE STUDY, Ethiopia Journal health science, Vol 14, No 1, pp 1-11.Carmel M, Hughes; McElnay, James C; Fleming, Glenda F. , (2001), Bene? ts and risks of self medication, Drug Safety, Vol 24, No 14, pp 1027-1037. Fadare Joseph O & Igbiks Tamuno, (2011), Antibiotic self-medication among university medical undergraduates in Northern Nigeria, Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology, Vol 3, No 5, pp 217-220. Ghosh Sourav, Vikas, Vimal, et al, (2010), Evaluation of the practice of self medication among college students in west U ttar Pradesh, International Journal of Pharma Professional's Research, Vol 1, No 1, pp 14-18.Haider S, Thaver IH, (1995), Self medication or self care: implication for primary health care strategies, J Pak Med Assoc, Vol 45, No11, pp 297-298. Hussain Azhar, Asifa Khanum,(2008), Self medication among university students of Islamabad, Pakistan- a preliminary study, Southern Med Review, Vol 1, No 1, pp 14-16. Hussain Shahzad, Farnaz Malik, Kazi Muhammad Ashfaq, et al , (2011), Prevalence of self-medication and health-seeking behavior in a developing country, African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Vol 5 , No 7, pp 972-978 James Henry, Shailendra S, Handu Khalid A.J, et al, (2006), Evaluation of the knowledge, attitude and practice of self-medication among first-year medical students, Med Princ Practice, Vol 15, No 4, pp 270-275. Khalid Tanzeela, Tariq Iqbal, (2010),Trends of self medication in patients with acne vulgarus, JUMDC, Vol 1, No 1, pp 10-13. Mumtaz Yasmin, S. M. Ashraf Jahangeer, Tahira Mujtaba, et al, (2011), Self Medication among University Students of Karachi, JLUMHS, Vol 10, No 3, pp 102-105. Oshikoya K A, O F Njokanma, J A Bello, et al, (2007), Family self-medication for children in an urban area of Nigeria , Paediatric and Perinatal Drug Therapy, Vol 8, No 3, pp 124-130.S Shveta, Jagmohan S, (2011), A study of self medication pattern in Punjab, Indian Journal of Pharmacy Practice, Vol 4, No 2, pp 43-46. Sawalha, Ansam F, (2007), Assessment of self-medication practice among University students in Palestine: Therapeutic and Toxicity Implications, The Islamic University Journal (Series of Natural Studies and Engineering), Vol 15, No 2, pp 67-82. SD Sontakke, Bajait CS , Pimpalkhute SA, et al, (2011), Comparative study of evaluation of self-medication practices in first and third year medical student, International Journal of Biological ; Medical Research , Vol 2, No 2, pp 561-564.Shankar PR, P Partha and N Shenoy, (2002), Self-medication and no n-doctor prescription practices in Pokhara valley, Western Nepal: a questionnaire-based study, BMC Family Practice, Vol 3, No 17, pp 1-7. Twombly Eric C ; Kristen D. Holtz, (2008), Teens and the Misuse of Prescription Drugs:Evidence-Based Recommendations to Curb a Growing Societal Problem, J Primary Prevent, Vol 29, No 18, pp 503–516. WHO, (1988), The role of pharmacist in self-care and self-medication, Netherland.Wijesinghe R Pushpa, Ravindra L Jayakody, Rohini de A Seneviratne, (2012), Prevalence and predictors of self-medication in a selected urban and rural district of Sri Lanka, WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health, Vol 1, No 1, pp 28-41. Zafar Syed Nabeel, Reema Syed, Sana Waqar, et al, (2008), Self medication amongst university students of Karachi: prevalence, knowledge and attitudes, J Pak Med Assoc, Vol 58, No 4, pp 214-217. http://apps. who. int/medicinedocs/pdf/whozip32e/whozip32e. pdf

The Homestead Steel Strike of 1892

The Homestead Strike, a work stoppage  at Carnegie Steels plant at Homestead, Pennsylvania, turned into one of the most violent episodes in the American labor struggles of the late 1800s. A planned occupation of the plant turned into a bloody battle when hundreds of men from the Pinkerton Detective Agency exchanged gunfire with workers and townspeople along the banks of the Monongahela River. In a surprising twist, strikers captured a number of Pinkertons when the strikebreakers were forced to surrender. The battle on July 6, 1892 ended with a truce, and the release of prisoners. But the state militia arrived a week later to settle things in favor of the company. And two weeks later an anarchist outraged by the behavior of Henry Clay Frick, the vehemently anti-labor manager of Carnegie Steel, tried to assassinate Frick in his office. Though shot twice, Frick survived. Other labor organizations had rallied to the defense of the union at Homestead, the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. And for a time public opinion seemed to side with the workers. But the attempted assassination of Frick, and the involvement of a known anarchist, was used to discredit the labor movement. In the end, the management of Carnegie Steel won. Background of the Homestead Plant Labor Problems In 1883 Andrew Carnegie  bought the Homestead Works, a steel plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, east of Pittsburgh on the Monongahela River. The plant, which had been focused on producing steel rails for railroads, was changed and modernized under Carnegies ownership to produce steel plate, which could be used for production of armored ships. Carnegie,  known for uncanny business foresight, had become one of the richest men in America, surpassing the wealth of earlier millionaires such as John Jacob Astor and Cornelius Vanderbilt. Under Carnegies direction, the Homestead plant kept expanding, and the town of Homestead, which had about 2,000 residents in 1880, when the plant first opened, grew to a population of about 12,000 in 1892. About 4,000 workers were employed at the steel plant. The union representing workers at the Homestead plant, the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, had signed a contract with Carnegies company in 1889. The contract was set to expire on July 1, 1892. Carnegie, and especially his business partner Henry Clay Frick, wanted to break the union. There has always been considerable  dispute about how much Carnegie knew of the ruthless tactics Frick planned to employ. At the time of the 1892 strike, Carnegie was at a luxurious estate he owned in Scotland. But it seems, based on letters the men exchanged, that Carnegie was fully aware of Fricks tactics. The Beginning of the Homestead Strike In 1891 Carnegie began to think about reducing wages at the Homestead plant, and when his company held meetings with the Amalgamated union in the spring of 1892 the company informed the union that it would be cutting wages at the plant. Carnegie also wrote a letter, before he left for Scotland in April 1892, which indicated that he intended to make Homestead a non-union plant. In late May, Henry Clay Frick instructed the company negotiators to inform the union that wages were being reduced. The union would not accept the proposal, which the company said was non-negotiable. In late June 1892, Frick had public notices posted in  the town of Homestead informing union members that since the union had rejected the companys offer, the company would have nothing to do with the union. And to further provoke the union, Frick began construction of what was being called Fort Frick. Tall fences were constructed around the plant, topped with barbed wire. The intent of the barricades and barbed wire was obvious: Frick intended to lock out the union and bring in scabs, non-union workers. The Pinkertons Attempted to Invade Homestead On the night of July 5, 1892, approximately 300 Pinkerton agents arrived in western Pennsylvania by train and boarded two barges which had been stocked with hundreds of pistols and rifles as well as uniforms. The barges were towed on  the Monongahela River to Homestead, where Frick assumed the Pinkertons  could land undetected in the middle of the night. Lookouts saw the barges coming and alerted the workers in Homestead, who raced to the riverbank. When the Pinkertons tried to land at dawn, hundreds of townspeople, some of them armed with weapons dating back to the Civil War, were waiting. It was never determined who fired the first shot, but a gun battle broke out. Men were killed and wounded on both sides, and the Pinkertons were pinned down on the barges, with no escape possible. Throughout the day of July 6, 1892, townspeople of Homestead tried to attack the barges, even pumping oil into the river in an attempt to set fires atop the water. Finally, late in the afternoon, some of the union leaders convinced the townspeople to let the Pinkertons surrender. As the Pinkertons left the barges to walk to a local opera house, where they would be held until the local sheriff could come and arrest them, townspeople threw bricks at them. Some Pinkertons were beaten. The sheriff arrived that night and removed the Pinkertons, though none of them were arrested or indicted for murder, as the townspeople had demanded. Newspapers had been covering the crisis for weeks, but the news of the violence created a sensation when it moved quickly across the telegraph wires. Newspaper editions were rushed out with startling accounts of the confrontation. The New York Evening World published a special extra edition with the headline: AT WAR: Pinkertons and Workers Fight at Homestead. Six steelworkers had been killed in the fighting, and would be buried in the following days. As the people in Homestead held funerals, Henry Clay Frick, in a newspaper interview, announced that he would have no dealings with the union. Henry Clay Frick Was Shot A month later, Henry Clay Frick was in his office in Pittsburgh and a young man came to see him, claiming to represent an agency that could supply replacement workers. The visitor to Frick was actually a Russian anarchist, Alexander Berkman, who had been living in New York City and who had no connection to the union. Berkman forced his way into Fricks office and shot him twice, nearly killing him. Frick survived the assassination attempt, but the incident was used to discredit the union and the American labor movement in general. The incident became a milestone in U.S. labor history, along with the Haymarket Riot and the 1894 Pullman Strike. Carnegie Succeeded in Keeping the Union Out of His Plants The Pennsylvania militia (similar to todays National Guard) took over the Homestead Plant and non-union strikebreakers were brought in to work. Eventually, with the union broken, many of the original workers returned to the plant. Leaders of the union were prosecuted, but juries in western Pennsylvania failed to convict them. While the violence had been happening in western Pennsylvania, Andrew Carnegie had been off in Scotland, avoiding the press at his estate. Carnegie would later claim that he had little to do with the violence at Homestead, but his claims were met with skepticism, and his reputation as a fair employer and philanthropist was greatly tarnished. And Carnegie did succeed in keeping unions out of his plants.